Lebanon Tribes and Clans: Difference between revisions
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* [https://shamela.ws/category/27 Al-Maktabah al-Shamilah (The Comprehensive Library) - Genealogy Category (Arabic)] - catalogue of Arabic books on genealogy with detailed descriptions; books not accessible directly on website | * [https://shamela.ws/category/27 Al-Maktabah al-Shamilah (The Comprehensive Library) - Genealogy Category (Arabic)] - catalogue of Arabic books on genealogy with detailed descriptions; books not accessible directly on website | ||
* [https://www.familysearch.org/en/library/MENA/lebanon-books Arab Genealogy Books Online] at FamilySearch Library; open access collection of Arabic genealogy books that have been digitized and can be browsed by country/region. They contain valuable information about tribal histories and family lineages. | |||
* ''The Arab Tribes: Their Historical Origins and Roots (in Arabic)'', by Jamal Mashari al-Rafdi. '''''Online at''''': [https://archive.org/details/20240502_20240502_1126/page/n1/mode/2up Archive.org]. | |||
**''القبائل العربية: أصولها جذورها التاريخية''، جمال بن مشاري الرفدي. | |||
*''El-Kfeir, the cradle of genius : the biggest small village in Lebanon'' by El-Khoury, Arreph. Beavercreek, Ohio:Baywater-Queensway Books, 2022. '''''Online at:''''' {{FSDL|925098}} | |||
* [https://olomlnassb.blogspot.com/ Genealogical Science Library (Arabic - <big>مكتبة علوم النسب</big>)] - digital catalogue of Arabic books on family and tribal genealogies; open source books are linked and accessible | * [https://olomlnassb.blogspot.com/ Genealogical Science Library (Arabic - <big>مكتبة علوم النسب</big>)] - digital catalogue of Arabic books on family and tribal genealogies; open source books are linked and accessible | ||
**Email: [mailto:Olomanasb@gmail.com olomanasb@gmail.com] | **Email: [mailto:Olomanasb@gmail.com olomanasb@gmail.com] | ||
* ''The Arab | *''The Kalbids and their role in the Arab presence throughout history'' by Attar, Adnan. Damascus, Syria:Dar Al-Awam for Publishing and Distribution: Dar Al-Farqad for Printing, Publishing and Distribution, 2007. '''''Online at:''''' {{FSDL|932113}} | ||
**'' | **"الكلبيون ودورهم في الوجود العربي خلال التاريخ /'' العطار، عدنان | ||
*''Levant clans'' by Zakaria, Ahmed Wasfi . Damascus, Syria:Dar Al-Fikr, 2020. '''''Online at:''''' {{FSDL|927915}} | |||
**"عشائر الشام /'' زكريا، أحمد وصفي | |||
*''Tanukh tribes and their famous days'' by Abu Ras, Fouad King and Aladdin, Raslan. Damascus, Syria:Dār Raslān lil-Ṭibāʻah wa-al-Nashr wa-al-Tawzīʻ, 2020. '''''Online at:''''' {{FSDL|932104}} | |||
**"قبائل تنوخ وأيامهم المشهورة /'' أبو راس، فؤاد كنج علاء الدين، رسلان | |||
*''Anṭākīyah al-Urthūdhuksīyah, aw, tārīkh al-Ābā’ Baṭāriqat Anṭākiyah'' by Burayk, Mīkhāʼīl. al-Qāhirah:al-Maṭba‘ah al-Tijārīyah, 1903. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/aub_aco000353 New York University]; History of the Patriarchs of Antioch. | |||
**.انطاكية الارثوذكسية، أو تاريخ الآباء بطارقة انطاكية .مخائيل بريك القاهرة:المطبعة التجارية،1903 | |||
*''Umarāʼ Ghassān lil-mustashriq Thīyūdūr Nūldikih'' by Nöldeke, Theodor. Bayrūt:al-Jāmi‘ah al-Amīrikīyah fī Bayrūt, Kullīyat al-‘Ulūm wa-al-Ādāb, 1933. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/aub_aco002074 New York University]; History and Lineage of the Ghassanids. | |||
**.أمراء غسان للمستشرق ثيودور نولدكه .ثيودور نولدكه بيروت:الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت، كلية العلوم والآداب، 1933 | |||
*''al- Badw wa-al-ʻashāʼir fī al-bilād al-ʻArabīyah'' by Ṭāhir, ʻAbd al-Jalīl. Cairo:Jāmiʻat al-Duwal al-ʻArabīyah, Maʻhad al-Dirāsāt al-ʻArabīyah al-ʻĀlīyah, 1955. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/auc_aco000389 New York University]; Overview of Arab Bedouin and clans | |||
**.البدو والعشائر في البلاد العربية .عبد الجليل طاهر [القاهرة]:جامعة الدول العربية، معهد الدراسات العربية العالية، 1955 | |||
*''Muʻjam qabāʼil al-ʻArab al-qadīmah wa-al-ḥadīthah v.1'' by Kaḥḥālah, ʻUmar Riḍā. Dimashq:al-Maktabah al-Hāshimīyah, 1949. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/aub_aco003046 New York University]; Encyclopedia of Arab tribes | |||
**.معجم قبائل العرب القديمة والحديثة الجزء الأول .عمر رضا كحالة دمشق:المكتبة الهاشمية ,1949 | |||
*''Muʻjam qabāʼil al-ʻArab al-qadīmah wa-al-ḥadīthah v.2'' by Kaḥḥālah, ʻUmar Riḍā. Dimashq:al-Maktabah al-Hāshimīyah, 1949. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/aub_aco003047 New York University]; Encyclopedia of Arab tribes | |||
**.معجم قبائل العرب القديمة والحديثة الجزء الثاني .عمر رضا كحالة دمشق:المكتبة الهاشمية ,1949 | |||
*''Muʻjam qabāʼil al-ʻArab al-qadīmah wa-al-ḥadīthah v.3'' by Kaḥḥālah, ʻUmar Riḍā. Dimashq:al-Maktabah al-Hāshimīyah, 1949. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/aub_aco003048 New York University]; Encyclopedia of Arab tribes | |||
**.معجم قبائل العرب القديمة والحديثة الجزء الثالث .عمر رضا كحالة دمشق:المكتبة الهاشمية ,1949 | |||
*''Sabāʼik al-dhahab fī maʻrifat qabāʼil al-ʻArab'' by Suwaydī, Muḥammad Amīn. Qum:al-Maktabah al-ʻIlmīyah, 198-. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/columbia_aco002259 New York University]; Overview of Arab tribes | |||
**.سبائك الذهب في معرفة قبائل العرب .محمد أمين سويدي قم:المكتبة العلمية، 198- | |||
*''Nihāyat al-arab fī maʻrifat ansāb al-ʻarab'' by Qalqashandī, Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd Allāh. Baghdād:Maṭbaʻat al-Najāḥ, 1958. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/columbia_aco000445 New York University]; Important classical text detailing the histories and genealogies of major Arab tribes | |||
**. | |||
*''Kitāb nasab Quraysh'' by Zubayrī, Muṣʻab ibn ʻAbd Allāh. al-Qāhirah:Dār al-Maʻārif lil-Ṭibāʻah wa-al-Nashr, 1953. '''''Online at:''''' [https://dlib.nyu.edu/aco/book/nyu_aco001366 New York University]; Classical genealogy of the Quraysh tribe, the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad | |||
**.كتاب نسب قريش .المصعب بن عبد الله الزبيري [القاهرة]:دار المعارف ,1953نهاية الأرب في معرفة أنساب العرب .أحمد بن عبد الله القلقشندي بغداد:مطبعة النجاح ,1958 | |||
===Print Publications=== | ===Print Publications=== | ||
==Background== | ==Background== | ||
Tribes in Lebanon play a somewhat diminished role in the social structure. While some Lebanese may proudly proclaim their membership in a given tribe, - or clan, as they are more often called there - many Lebanese families are more likely to cite their relationship to one of the ethno-religious communities that define modern Lebanon. | In the Middle East and North Africa, the term "tribe" refers to large collection of inter-related families that can trace their lineage back to a common ancestor; although, as is discussed in greater detail below, a shared ancestry is not always necessary for a family to join a tribe. It is typically used as a translation for the Arabic word "<big>قَبيلة</big>" (qabīlah), although in the Research Wiki "tribe" is also used for other Arabic terms. Tribes in the region can number in the hundreds to tens of thousands; some are relatively localized, while others are stretched or scattered over vast areas. Tribes are often divided into increasingly smaller kinship groups, including "<big>بَطْن</big>" (baṭn), "<big>فَخْذ</big>" (fakhth), and "<big>عَشيرة</big>" (ʿashīrah). The latter is translated in the Wiki as "clan". | ||
Tribes in Lebanon play a somewhat diminished role in the social structure compared to elsewhere in the Middle East. While some Lebanese may proudly proclaim their membership in a given tribe, - or clan, as they are more often called there - many Lebanese families are more likely to cite their relationship to one of the ethno-religious communities that define modern Lebanon. | |||
However, tribes and tribal identity are still relevant for many Lebanese. One major historical clan in Lebanon is the Hamadiyeh, which has two main branches: the Zaaitar and the Chamas. The Zaaitar clan can be further divided into the Meqdad, Haj Hassan, Noon, Shreif, and Jaafar, while the Chamas clan is split into the Allaw, Nassereddine, and Dandash. These tribes are concentrated in the Bekaa, Baalbek-Hermel, and Mount Lebanon regions.<ref>Samaha, Nour, "Meeting the clans of Lebanon," ''Al Jazeera,'' https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/8/18/meeting-the-clans-of-lebanon, accessed 23 January 2025.</ref> | However, tribes and tribal identity are still relevant for many Lebanese. One major historical clan in Lebanon is the Hamadiyeh, which has two main branches: the Zaaitar and the Chamas. The Zaaitar clan can be further divided into the Meqdad, Haj Hassan, Noon, Shreif, and Jaafar, while the Chamas clan is split into the Allaw, Nassereddine, and Dandash. These tribes are concentrated in the Bekaa, Baalbek-Hermel, and Mount Lebanon regions.<ref>Samaha, Nour, "Meeting the clans of Lebanon," ''Al Jazeera,'' https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/8/18/meeting-the-clans-of-lebanon, accessed 23 January 2025.</ref> | ||
Tradition holds that all Arab tribes trace their lineage to two primary ancestors: Qahtan (<big>قحطان</big>), progenitor of the "pure" Arabs originating from modern Yemen, and Adnan (<big>عدنان</big>), ancestor of the "Arabicized" Arabs and a descendent of Abraham's son Ishmael.<ref name=":0">"People of Arabia," ''Britannica'', https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-peninsula-Asia/People, accessed 5 September 2024.</ref> | |||
Throughout Arabian history, free, arms-bearing tribesmen, whether nomadic or settled, dominated society. Sultans, emirs, and sheikhs were often drawn from these tribes and sought their support. The descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, who hold the titles of sayyids and sharifs, traditionally enjoyed a higher social status and sometimes exercised theocratic rule as spiritual leaders. | |||
It is important to note that affiliation with a particular tribe does not necessarily entail direct kinship to that tribe. In some cases, new tribes formed as the result of alliances between pre-existing tribal groups. Individual families may have occasionally become clients of a different tribe and eventually adopted as members. On an even smaller scale, individuals were sometimes adopted into a tribe. This was particularly true during the first centuries of Islam, when non-Arab converts to Islam were required to become clients, or "mawali" (Arabic مَوالٍ), of an Arab tribe.<ref>Wikipedia contributors, "Spread of Islam," ''Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia,'' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islam, accessed 8 October 2024.</ref> Therefore, association with a tribe does not automatically imply descent or kinship relationship within a given lineage. | |||
==Types of Records== | ==Types of Records== | ||
* '''Books''' - There are numerous books written on Lebanese and, more broadly, Arab tribes. Both categories of books can be valuable to researchers, as many tribes found in Lebanon are also found elsewhere in the Middle East and North Africa. | |||
==Information Recorded in the Records== | ==Information Recorded in the Records== | ||
Tribal histories and genealogies can contain a variety of data useful for family history researchers. Depending on the type and detail of tribal genealogy, typically include the names of fathers and sons but may exclude wives or daughters. Additionally, these genealogies may not include exact birth or death dates, although background information can often allow the researcher to estimate these data for individuals in the records. | Tribal histories and genealogies can contain a variety of data useful for family history researchers. Depending on the type and detail of tribal genealogy, typically include the names of fathers and sons but may exclude wives or daughters. Additionally, these genealogies may not include exact birth or death dates, although background information can often allow the researcher to estimate these data for individuals in the records. | ||
Even without detailed lineages, tribal histories can still be useful for researchers. These records often contain details on tribal origins, migrations and movement, and traditional beliefs and culture. | |||
Even without detailed lineages, tribal histories can still be useful for researchers. These records often contain details on tribal origins, migrations and movement, and traditional beliefs and culture. | |||
==Strategy== | ==Strategy== | ||
The published works above include information useful for tracing Lebanese tribal lineages. These works include lineages, tribal history, biographies of prominent individuals, poetry, or encyclopedic entries of tribes and their sub-divisions. | The published works above include information useful for tracing Lebanese tribal lineages. These works include lineages, tribal history, biographies of prominent individuals, poetry, or encyclopedic entries of tribes and their sub-divisions. | ||
As with all genealogical research, start with what you know. If you know your ancestor's tribal affiliation already, search books on that tribe. If not, search for resources on | As with all genealogical research, start with what you know. If you know your ancestor's tribal affiliation already, search books on that tribe. If not, search for resources on their country or region of origin, which can often identify the predominant tribes located there. Become familiar with the various branches within the tribe to better understand where your ancestors fit within the larger tribal structure. Within tribal lineages, search for the names of familiar individuals or places as clues to identify your exact family line. | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Latest revision as of 21:18, 11 August 2025
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In other languages: العربيةResources[edit | edit source]
Online Resources[edit | edit source]
- Al-Maktabah al-Shamilah (The Comprehensive Library) - Genealogy Category (Arabic) - catalogue of Arabic books on genealogy with detailed descriptions; books not accessible directly on website
- Arab Genealogy Books Online at FamilySearch Library; open access collection of Arabic genealogy books that have been digitized and can be browsed by country/region. They contain valuable information about tribal histories and family lineages.
- The Arab Tribes: Their Historical Origins and Roots (in Arabic), by Jamal Mashari al-Rafdi. Online at: Archive.org.
- القبائل العربية: أصولها جذورها التاريخية، جمال بن مشاري الرفدي.
- El-Kfeir, the cradle of genius : the biggest small village in Lebanon by El-Khoury, Arreph. Beavercreek, Ohio:Baywater-Queensway Books, 2022. Online at: FamilySearch Digital Library
- Genealogical Science Library (Arabic - مكتبة علوم النسب) - digital catalogue of Arabic books on family and tribal genealogies; open source books are linked and accessible
- Email: olomanasb@gmail.com
- The Kalbids and their role in the Arab presence throughout history by Attar, Adnan. Damascus, Syria:Dar Al-Awam for Publishing and Distribution: Dar Al-Farqad for Printing, Publishing and Distribution, 2007. Online at: FamilySearch Digital Library
- "الكلبيون ودورهم في الوجود العربي خلال التاريخ / العطار، عدنان
- Levant clans by Zakaria, Ahmed Wasfi . Damascus, Syria:Dar Al-Fikr, 2020. Online at: FamilySearch Digital Library
- "عشائر الشام / زكريا، أحمد وصفي
- Tanukh tribes and their famous days by Abu Ras, Fouad King and Aladdin, Raslan. Damascus, Syria:Dār Raslān lil-Ṭibāʻah wa-al-Nashr wa-al-Tawzīʻ, 2020. Online at: FamilySearch Digital Library
- "قبائل تنوخ وأيامهم المشهورة / أبو راس، فؤاد كنج علاء الدين، رسلان
- Anṭākīyah al-Urthūdhuksīyah, aw, tārīkh al-Ābā’ Baṭāriqat Anṭākiyah by Burayk, Mīkhāʼīl. al-Qāhirah:al-Maṭba‘ah al-Tijārīyah, 1903. Online at: New York University; History of the Patriarchs of Antioch.
- .انطاكية الارثوذكسية، أو تاريخ الآباء بطارقة انطاكية .مخائيل بريك القاهرة:المطبعة التجارية،1903
- Umarāʼ Ghassān lil-mustashriq Thīyūdūr Nūldikih by Nöldeke, Theodor. Bayrūt:al-Jāmi‘ah al-Amīrikīyah fī Bayrūt, Kullīyat al-‘Ulūm wa-al-Ādāb, 1933. Online at: New York University; History and Lineage of the Ghassanids.
- .أمراء غسان للمستشرق ثيودور نولدكه .ثيودور نولدكه بيروت:الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت، كلية العلوم والآداب، 1933
- al- Badw wa-al-ʻashāʼir fī al-bilād al-ʻArabīyah by Ṭāhir, ʻAbd al-Jalīl. Cairo:Jāmiʻat al-Duwal al-ʻArabīyah, Maʻhad al-Dirāsāt al-ʻArabīyah al-ʻĀlīyah, 1955. Online at: New York University; Overview of Arab Bedouin and clans
- .البدو والعشائر في البلاد العربية .عبد الجليل طاهر [القاهرة]:جامعة الدول العربية، معهد الدراسات العربية العالية، 1955
- Muʻjam qabāʼil al-ʻArab al-qadīmah wa-al-ḥadīthah v.1 by Kaḥḥālah, ʻUmar Riḍā. Dimashq:al-Maktabah al-Hāshimīyah, 1949. Online at: New York University; Encyclopedia of Arab tribes
- .معجم قبائل العرب القديمة والحديثة الجزء الأول .عمر رضا كحالة دمشق:المكتبة الهاشمية ,1949
- Muʻjam qabāʼil al-ʻArab al-qadīmah wa-al-ḥadīthah v.2 by Kaḥḥālah, ʻUmar Riḍā. Dimashq:al-Maktabah al-Hāshimīyah, 1949. Online at: New York University; Encyclopedia of Arab tribes
- .معجم قبائل العرب القديمة والحديثة الجزء الثاني .عمر رضا كحالة دمشق:المكتبة الهاشمية ,1949
- Muʻjam qabāʼil al-ʻArab al-qadīmah wa-al-ḥadīthah v.3 by Kaḥḥālah, ʻUmar Riḍā. Dimashq:al-Maktabah al-Hāshimīyah, 1949. Online at: New York University; Encyclopedia of Arab tribes
- .معجم قبائل العرب القديمة والحديثة الجزء الثالث .عمر رضا كحالة دمشق:المكتبة الهاشمية ,1949
- Sabāʼik al-dhahab fī maʻrifat qabāʼil al-ʻArab by Suwaydī, Muḥammad Amīn. Qum:al-Maktabah al-ʻIlmīyah, 198-. Online at: New York University; Overview of Arab tribes
- .سبائك الذهب في معرفة قبائل العرب .محمد أمين سويدي قم:المكتبة العلمية، 198-
- Nihāyat al-arab fī maʻrifat ansāb al-ʻarab by Qalqashandī, Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd Allāh. Baghdād:Maṭbaʻat al-Najāḥ, 1958. Online at: New York University; Important classical text detailing the histories and genealogies of major Arab tribes
- .
- Kitāb nasab Quraysh by Zubayrī, Muṣʻab ibn ʻAbd Allāh. al-Qāhirah:Dār al-Maʻārif lil-Ṭibāʻah wa-al-Nashr, 1953. Online at: New York University; Classical genealogy of the Quraysh tribe, the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad
- .كتاب نسب قريش .المصعب بن عبد الله الزبيري [القاهرة]:دار المعارف ,1953نهاية الأرب في معرفة أنساب العرب .أحمد بن عبد الله القلقشندي بغداد:مطبعة النجاح ,1958
Print Publications[edit | edit source]
Background[edit | edit source]
In the Middle East and North Africa, the term "tribe" refers to large collection of inter-related families that can trace their lineage back to a common ancestor; although, as is discussed in greater detail below, a shared ancestry is not always necessary for a family to join a tribe. It is typically used as a translation for the Arabic word "قَبيلة" (qabīlah), although in the Research Wiki "tribe" is also used for other Arabic terms. Tribes in the region can number in the hundreds to tens of thousands; some are relatively localized, while others are stretched or scattered over vast areas. Tribes are often divided into increasingly smaller kinship groups, including "بَطْن" (baṭn), "فَخْذ" (fakhth), and "عَشيرة" (ʿashīrah). The latter is translated in the Wiki as "clan".
Tribes in Lebanon play a somewhat diminished role in the social structure compared to elsewhere in the Middle East. While some Lebanese may proudly proclaim their membership in a given tribe, - or clan, as they are more often called there - many Lebanese families are more likely to cite their relationship to one of the ethno-religious communities that define modern Lebanon.
However, tribes and tribal identity are still relevant for many Lebanese. One major historical clan in Lebanon is the Hamadiyeh, which has two main branches: the Zaaitar and the Chamas. The Zaaitar clan can be further divided into the Meqdad, Haj Hassan, Noon, Shreif, and Jaafar, while the Chamas clan is split into the Allaw, Nassereddine, and Dandash. These tribes are concentrated in the Bekaa, Baalbek-Hermel, and Mount Lebanon regions.[1]
Tradition holds that all Arab tribes trace their lineage to two primary ancestors: Qahtan (قحطان), progenitor of the "pure" Arabs originating from modern Yemen, and Adnan (عدنان), ancestor of the "Arabicized" Arabs and a descendent of Abraham's son Ishmael.[2]
Throughout Arabian history, free, arms-bearing tribesmen, whether nomadic or settled, dominated society. Sultans, emirs, and sheikhs were often drawn from these tribes and sought their support. The descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, who hold the titles of sayyids and sharifs, traditionally enjoyed a higher social status and sometimes exercised theocratic rule as spiritual leaders.
It is important to note that affiliation with a particular tribe does not necessarily entail direct kinship to that tribe. In some cases, new tribes formed as the result of alliances between pre-existing tribal groups. Individual families may have occasionally become clients of a different tribe and eventually adopted as members. On an even smaller scale, individuals were sometimes adopted into a tribe. This was particularly true during the first centuries of Islam, when non-Arab converts to Islam were required to become clients, or "mawali" (Arabic مَوالٍ), of an Arab tribe.[3] Therefore, association with a tribe does not automatically imply descent or kinship relationship within a given lineage.
Types of Records[edit | edit source]
- Books - There are numerous books written on Lebanese and, more broadly, Arab tribes. Both categories of books can be valuable to researchers, as many tribes found in Lebanon are also found elsewhere in the Middle East and North Africa.
Information Recorded in the Records[edit | edit source]
Tribal histories and genealogies can contain a variety of data useful for family history researchers. Depending on the type and detail of tribal genealogy, typically include the names of fathers and sons but may exclude wives or daughters. Additionally, these genealogies may not include exact birth or death dates, although background information can often allow the researcher to estimate these data for individuals in the records.
Even without detailed lineages, tribal histories can still be useful for researchers. These records often contain details on tribal origins, migrations and movement, and traditional beliefs and culture.
Strategy[edit | edit source]
The published works above include information useful for tracing Lebanese tribal lineages. These works include lineages, tribal history, biographies of prominent individuals, poetry, or encyclopedic entries of tribes and their sub-divisions.
As with all genealogical research, start with what you know. If you know your ancestor's tribal affiliation already, search books on that tribe. If not, search for resources on their country or region of origin, which can often identify the predominant tribes located there. Become familiar with the various branches within the tribe to better understand where your ancestors fit within the larger tribal structure. Within tribal lineages, search for the names of familiar individuals or places as clues to identify your exact family line.
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Samaha, Nour, "Meeting the clans of Lebanon," Al Jazeera, https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2012/8/18/meeting-the-clans-of-lebanon, accessed 23 January 2025.
- ↑ "People of Arabia," Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-peninsula-Asia/People, accessed 5 September 2024.
- ↑ Wikipedia contributors, "Spread of Islam," Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islam, accessed 8 October 2024.