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Proof in genealogy, it has to be said, is not much more than the highest degree of confidence that the best available sources indicate certain facts about the relationships of the people under consideration. It follows, therefore, that the degree of confidence that can be placed in a pedigree must depend on knowledge of its compiler’s methods and, most importantly, of the sources used. | Proof in genealogy, it has to be said, is not much more than the highest degree of confidence that the best available sources indicate certain facts about the relationships of the people under consideration. It follows, therefore, that the degree of confidence that can be placed in a pedigree must depend on knowledge of its compiler’s methods and, most importantly, of the sources used. | ||
=== Aims === | === Aims === | ||
It goes without saying that it is important at all times and as far as is possible to seek for the verifiable ‘truth’ and to strive for accuracy. It has to be recognised, however, that the whole ‘truth’ about any family, indeed about any one person, is not knowable. It is, therefore, equally important to keep an open mind and not to think, “I know all about that”, so that further discoveries may always be made. If contradictory evidence is found or there are differing views about the same fact or person, both must be recorded together with the sources from which they derive. | It goes without saying that it is important at all times and as far as is possible to seek for the verifiable ‘truth’ and to strive for accuracy. It has to be recognised, however, that the whole ‘truth’ about any family, indeed about any one person, is not knowable. It is, therefore, equally important to keep an open mind and not to think, “I know all about that”, so that further discoveries may always be made. If contradictory evidence is found or there are differing views about the same fact or person, both must be recorded together with the sources from which they derive. | ||
=== Sources === | === Sources === | ||
All written sources depend in the first instance on the original writer’s prejudices, interests, experience and motives as well as on their proximity in space and time to the events that they record. <br>Such written sources then further depend on the expertise and accuracy of the copier and indexer. In addition, if the sources have been microfilmed, microfiched or scanned then pages may have been accidentally omitted.<br>Because so much compiled ‘instant ancestry’, particularly on the internet, is now sadly discredited, the National Genealogical Society (USA) recommends: ‘Seek original records, or reproduced images of them where there is reasonable assurance they have not been altered, as the basis for the research conclusions. Use compilations, communications, and published works, whether paper or electronic, primarily for their value as guides to locating the original records’<ref>'Standards for sound genealogical research' in National Genealogical Society Quarterly, vol. 86, no. 1 (March 1998) page 50.</ref> . | All written sources depend in the first instance on the original writer’s prejudices, interests, experience and motives as well as on their proximity in space and time to the events that they record. <br>Such written sources then further depend on the expertise and accuracy of the copier and indexer. In addition, if the sources have been microfilmed, microfiched or scanned then pages may have been accidentally omitted.<br>Because so much compiled ‘instant ancestry’, particularly on the internet, is now sadly discredited, the National Genealogical Society (USA) recommends: ‘Seek original records, or reproduced images of them where there is reasonable assurance they have not been altered, as the basis for the research conclusions. Use compilations, communications, and published works, whether paper or electronic, primarily for their value as guides to locating the original records’<ref>'Standards for sound genealogical research' in National Genealogical Society Quarterly, vol. 86, no. 1 (March 1998) page 50.</ref> . | ||
=== '''Personal knowledge''' === | === '''Personal knowledge''' === | ||
It was generally accepted in the past that people would have direct personal knowledge and could therefore state with confidence facts about their children and grandchildren and about their parents and grandparents. Such statements were accepted when pedigrees were recorded at the Visitations made by the Heralds in England and Wales between 1530 and 1686 and when pedigrees were registered at the College of Arms. <br>This knowledge of grandchildren and grandparents, let alone of brothers and sisters, may not, however, be accurate or complete. The details of one’s own birth always rely on the statements of others. As the Lord Chief Justice said during the Tichborne Case, ‘I don’t think a man can know when he was born’.<ref>Douglas Woodruff, The Tichborne claimant (1957) page 204.</ref> Primary evidence for all events on the pedigree is required. | It was generally accepted in the past that people would have direct personal knowledge and could therefore state with confidence facts about their children and grandchildren and about their parents and grandparents. Such statements were accepted when pedigrees were recorded at the Visitations made by the Heralds in England and Wales between 1530 and 1686 and when pedigrees were registered at the College of Arms. <br>This knowledge of grandchildren and grandparents, let alone of brothers and sisters, may not, however, be accurate or complete. The details of one’s own birth always rely on the statements of others. As the Lord Chief Justice said during the Tichborne Case, ‘I don’t think a man can know when he was born’.<ref>Douglas Woodruff, The Tichborne claimant (1957) page 204.</ref> Primary evidence for all events on the pedigree is required. | ||
=== '''Primary evidence''' === | === '''Primary evidence''' === | ||
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Primary evidence is that recorded by those directly involved and at the time of the events. It will generally be the best evidence available. | Primary evidence is that recorded by those directly involved and at the time of the events. It will generally be the best evidence available. | ||
=== Secondary evidence === | === Secondary evidence === | ||
Secondary evidence is that recorded by others who were not directly involved in the event, or by those who made the record later. It may also be a copy of the primary evidence into which errors may have been introduced.<br>Much primary evidence is really secondary evidence because a second-hand or third-hand copy is being used. For example, the British census returns and civil registration certificates of birth, marriage and death are all copies. A family Bible may be secondary evidence if the entries in it were made many years after the events recorded.<br>In the final event the pedigree should rely for its basic relationships on primary evidence. Other incidental matters may, of necessity, have to rely to some extent on secondary sources. | Secondary evidence is that recorded by others who were not directly involved in the event, or by those who made the record later. It may also be a copy of the primary evidence into which errors may have been introduced.<br>Much primary evidence is really secondary evidence because a second-hand or third-hand copy is being used. For example, the British census returns and civil registration certificates of birth, marriage and death are all copies. A family Bible may be secondary evidence if the entries in it were made many years after the events recorded.<br>In the final event the pedigree should rely for its basic relationships on primary evidence. Other incidental matters may, of necessity, have to rely to some extent on secondary sources. | ||
=== Records proving kinship === | === Records proving kinship === | ||
Some primary records in themselves may prove a relationship between a parent and its child, but many have weaknesses which must also be borne in mind. These records include:<br>• Inquisitions post mortem.<br>• Heralds’ Visitations, though not all the children or brothers and sisters may be mentioned. Edited and printed versions may contain unreliable later additions.<br>• Conveyances and leases of land.<br>• Lawsuits between related parties, but beware of bias in conflicting claims.<br>• Records of apprenticeship and the freedom of a company or borough.<br>• School and university records, but edited and printed versions may contain unreliable later additions.<br>• Wills, but not all the children may be mentioned.<br>• Census returns, but relationships are to the head of the family and the wife may not be the mother of the children.<br>Sources that show parentage or lead directly to a place of origin are, of course, of primary importance to the genealogist. They are listed and discussed in Anthony Camp,''My ancestors moved in England or Wales: how can I trace where they came from?'' (Society of Genealogists, London, 1994). Sources that identify an individual with a location and sources that provide vital data and/or proof of relationships form an interesting division in Joy Wade Moulton, ''Genealogical resources in English repositories'' (Hampton House, Columbus, Ohio, 1988). | Some primary records in themselves may prove a relationship between a parent and its child, but many have weaknesses which must also be borne in mind. These records include:<br>• Inquisitions post mortem.<br>• Heralds’ Visitations, though not all the children or brothers and sisters may be mentioned. Edited and printed versions may contain unreliable later additions.<br>• Conveyances and leases of land.<br>• Lawsuits between related parties, but beware of bias in conflicting claims.<br>• Records of apprenticeship and the freedom of a company or borough.<br>• School and university records, but edited and printed versions may contain unreliable later additions.<br>• Wills, but not all the children may be mentioned.<br>• Census returns, but relationships are to the head of the family and the wife may not be the mother of the children.<br>Sources that show parentage or lead directly to a place of origin are, of course, of primary importance to the genealogist. They are listed and discussed in Anthony Camp,''My ancestors moved in England or Wales: how can I trace where they came from?'' (Society of Genealogists, London, 1994). Sources that identify an individual with a location and sources that provide vital data and/or proof of relationships form an interesting division in Joy Wade Moulton, ''Genealogical resources in English repositories'' (Hampton House, Columbus, Ohio, 1988). | ||
=== Circumstantial evidence === | === Circumstantial evidence === | ||
Circumstantial evidence is evidence of facts or circumstances from which the existence (or non-existence) of a fact at issue may be inferred. It should not be relied on too heavily and no relationship should rely on it alone.<br>Relationship by inference may be stronger if there is a direct link between persons of the same surname through ownership of the same property, successive involvement in one trade, or membership of a guild or company, or through occupancy of the same house or property. A succession of entries of persons with the same surname in annual lists, such as are found in the Land Tax, trade or street directories, or in electoral registers, may thus be very important, indicating the date of death of a father and of the succession or coming of age of his son.<br>A pattern of forenames may be strong circumstantial evidence of descent or relationship, though some forenames are found so frequently as to be of little or no assistance. Remember also that most families of Drake use the surname Francis, and similarly with other famous names. It does not mean that there is a relationship. | Circumstantial evidence is evidence of facts or circumstances from which the existence (or non-existence) of a fact at issue may be inferred. It should not be relied on too heavily and no relationship should rely on it alone.<br>Relationship by inference may be stronger if there is a direct link between persons of the same surname through ownership of the same property, successive involvement in one trade, or membership of a guild or company, or through occupancy of the same house or property. A succession of entries of persons with the same surname in annual lists, such as are found in the Land Tax, trade or street directories, or in electoral registers, may thus be very important, indicating the date of death of a father and of the succession or coming of age of his son.<br>A pattern of forenames may be strong circumstantial evidence of descent or relationship, though some forenames are found so frequently as to be of little or no assistance. Remember also that most families of Drake use the surname Francis, and similarly with other famous names. It does not mean that there is a relationship. | ||
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Evidence may be accidentally lost or destroyed but it may not have existed in the first place. Absence of evidence should, however, never be construed as purposeful destruction of evidence. One is almost certainly looking in the wrong place. Search elsewhere.<br>This is particularly true when attempts are being made to connect two families of the same surname and the so-called ‘link’ cannot be found. Such a link may not exist and the true ancestry will not then be found until wider searches are made.<br>Absence of evidence is not always evidence of absence. A nonconformist family may not appear in the parish registers. A family may be temporarily absent on the night of a census. The indexes may be incomplete or the surname may be incorrectly copied. Indexed entries may be grouped under a surname variant quite unfamiliar to the searcher. It will be important to go back to the original records at some stage and not to rely on the indexes alone. | Evidence may be accidentally lost or destroyed but it may not have existed in the first place. Absence of evidence should, however, never be construed as purposeful destruction of evidence. One is almost certainly looking in the wrong place. Search elsewhere.<br>This is particularly true when attempts are being made to connect two families of the same surname and the so-called ‘link’ cannot be found. Such a link may not exist and the true ancestry will not then be found until wider searches are made.<br>Absence of evidence is not always evidence of absence. A nonconformist family may not appear in the parish registers. A family may be temporarily absent on the night of a census. The indexes may be incomplete or the surname may be incorrectly copied. Indexed entries may be grouped under a surname variant quite unfamiliar to the searcher. It will be important to go back to the original records at some stage and not to rely on the indexes alone. | ||
=== Conflicting evidence === | === Conflicting evidence === | ||
It is always important to keep an open mind. There was a time when some genealogists, influenced by a legalistic approach to evidence<ref>as provided by Noel C. Stevenson, Genealogical evidence: a guide to the standard proof relating to pedigrees, ancestry, heirship and family history (Laguna Hills, California: Aegean Press, 1979, 1989).</ref> advocated the deciding of relationships by ‘the preponderance of the evidence’. It is now generally agreed, however, that this should never be done unless there is a significant body of evidence, all possible documents have been consulted and all point in the same direction. If there is a conflict in the evidence both accounts must be recorded. In any case, it is doubtful that any genealogist working amongst English records could truthfully say that all the possible documents had been consulted. | It is always important to keep an open mind. There was a time when some genealogists, influenced by a legalistic approach to evidence<ref>as provided by Noel C. Stevenson, Genealogical evidence: a guide to the standard proof relating to pedigrees, ancestry, heirship and family history (Laguna Hills, California: Aegean Press, 1979, 1989).</ref> advocated the deciding of relationships by ‘the preponderance of the evidence’. It is now generally agreed, however, that this should never be done unless there is a significant body of evidence, all possible documents have been consulted and all point in the same direction. If there is a conflict in the evidence both accounts must be recorded. In any case, it is doubtful that any genealogist working amongst English records could truthfully say that all the possible documents had been consulted. | ||
=== Negative evidence === | === Negative evidence === | ||
Negative evidence is sometimes almost as important as positive evidence. However, once more the breadth of sources consulted, the area and the period, should all be recorded before any statement is made.<br>There are dangers, however, in accepting an entry just because it is the only one in the right area at the right time and fits the known facts. Further connecting evidence should be sought.<br>In such cases it is necessary to attempt to disprove the relationship as well as to prove it. The efforts to do both should also be recorded. If a possible baptism is found for a given ancestor the possible burial of that child should always immediately be sought for, as well as that child’s later possible marriage to someone other than the known wife. The evidence of the wills of the presumed parents and of the child’s presumed brothers and sisters must be investigated. The names of the witnesses at the first ancestral marriage will need to be studied with care. | Negative evidence is sometimes almost as important as positive evidence. However, once more the breadth of sources consulted, the area and the period, should all be recorded before any statement is made.<br>There are dangers, however, in accepting an entry just because it is the only one in the right area at the right time and fits the known facts. Further connecting evidence should be sought.<br>In such cases it is necessary to attempt to disprove the relationship as well as to prove it. The efforts to do both should also be recorded. If a possible baptism is found for a given ancestor the possible burial of that child should always immediately be sought for, as well as that child’s later possible marriage to someone other than the known wife. The evidence of the wills of the presumed parents and of the child’s presumed brothers and sisters must be investigated. The names of the witnesses at the first ancestral marriage will need to be studied with care. | ||
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Record and show your evidence at all times. Only then can someone with more time in the future continue your work or judge its reliability. Place the compiled results in appropriate libraries and repositories and welcome critical comment. Someone will soon say if they think your facts are wrong, but do not necessarily accept their statements unless they too cite their evidence. | Record and show your evidence at all times. Only then can someone with more time in the future continue your work or judge its reliability. Place the compiled results in appropriate libraries and repositories and welcome critical comment. Someone will soon say if they think your facts are wrong, but do not necessarily accept their statements unless they too cite their evidence. | ||
=== References === | === References === | ||
<references /><references /><references /><references /> | <references /><references /><references /><references /> | ||
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=== '''Bibliography<br>''' === | === '''Bibliography<br>''' === | ||
Richard S. Lackey, ''Cite your sources: a manual for documenting family histories and genealogical records ''(Jackson, Mississippi: University of Mississippi, 1985) [FHL 929.1 L118c].<br>Elizabeth Shown Mills, ''<span style="display: none" id="1310998470197S"> </span>Evidence! Citation & analysis for the family historian<span id="fck_dom_range_temp_1310998469490_911" /> (Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997) [ FHL 929.1 M625e].<br>Brenda Dougall Merriman, ''About genealogical standards of evidence: a guide for Canadian genealogists''(Toronto: Ontario Genealogical Society, 2nd ed. 2004) [FHL 971 D27mb].<br> | Richard S. Lackey, ''Cite your sources: a manual for documenting family histories and genealogical records ''(Jackson, Mississippi: University of Mississippi, 1985) [FHL 929.1 L118c].<br>Elizabeth Shown Mills, ''<span style="display: none" id="1310998470197S"> </span>Evidence! Citation & analysis for the family historian<span id="fck_dom_range_temp_1310998469490_911" />'' (Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997) [ FHL 929.1 M625e].<br>Brenda Dougall Merriman'', ''''About genealogical standards of evidence: a guide for Canadian genealogists''(Toronto: Ontario Genealogical Society, 2nd ed. 2004) [FHL 971 D27mb].<br>Elizabeth Shown Mills, ''Evidence explained: citing history sources from artifacts to cyberspace'' (Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Company, 2nd ed. 2009) [FHL 929.1 M625ee].<br> | ||
[Adapted with permission from Anthony Camp’s article ‘Proving a pedigree’ in ''Family Tree Magazine'' (UK; http://family-tree.co.uk), vol. 15, no. 10 (August 1999) 4-5].<br> | [Adapted with permission from Anthony Camp’s article ‘Proving a pedigree’ in ''Family Tree Magazine'' (UK; http://family-tree.co.uk), vol. 15, no. 10 (August 1999) 4-5].<br> | ||
[[Category:England|''England'']] | [[Category:England|''England'']] | ||