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Adding info about Ashkenazic Jews
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=== Ashkenazic Surnames === | === Ashkenazic Surnames === | ||
The Yiddish-speaking Jews of central and eastern Europe are called Ashkenazic. Some Ashkenazic Jews used hereditary surnames as early as the Middle Ages, although the custom was uncommon. The practice was limited to Jews who had business dealings with the gentile (non-Jewish) world. These early Jewish surnames were often the same as Christian family names. Some Germanic Jewish names were derived from the house signs which served instead of house numbers in many German cities during the 16th and 17th centuries. For example, the Rothschild family lived at the red shield. Strauss [ostrich] comes from the house with an ostrich plume sign. Other examples of shield names are Adler [eagle], Taub [dove], and Schiff [ship]. | |||
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Ashkenazic Jews moved increasingly into mainstream European life. The adoption of fixed surnames became more and more important, especially those in Western Europe. These names were patronymic or derived from localities (such as Berliner [of Berlin], Frank [France], or Hamburg), occupations (such as Wechsler [money changer], Kaufmann [merchant], or Schneider [tailor]), or characteristics (such as Schwartz [black hair] or Klein [small]). | |||
Most | Most Eastern European Jews were isolated from their gentile neighbors and rarely used surnames. Until the end of the 18th century the use of a family name was left to the discretion of the individual Jew. The bulk of the Ashkenazic Jews in Germany and especially in Eastern Europe still followed the custom of using only a given name and the patronymic (Joseph, son of Isaac). | ||
====Compulsory Adoption of Surnames==== | |||
The political status of European Jews changed dramatically at the end of the 18th century. Many countries freed Jews from restrictive laws and gave them limited or sometimes full civil rights. At the same time laws required Jews to adopt permanent family surnames for taxation and conscription purposes. Jewish surnames were to be registered by a government commission. If a Jew refused to select a surname, the commission could impose one. Records of the registration of Jewish surnames were kept in France, Netherlands, and other countries. Following is an example of these records: | The political status of European Jews changed dramatically at the end of the 18th century. Many countries freed Jews from restrictive laws and gave them limited or sometimes full civil rights. At the same time laws required Jews to adopt permanent family surnames for taxation and conscription purposes. Jewish surnames were to be registered by a government commission. If a Jew refused to select a surname, the commission could impose one. Austria was the first European state to require Jews to take fixed (usually German) family names. Records of the registration of Jewish surnames were kept in France, Netherlands, and other countries. Following is an example of these records: | ||
Registres des déclarations faites par les Israelites (Registers of Name Declarations Made by the Jews). Strasbourg: Archives départementales à Strasbourg, 1973. (FHL films 1070259– 1070263, 1070123.) | Registres des déclarations faites par les Israelites (Registers of Name Declarations Made by the Jews). Strasbourg: Archives départementales à Strasbourg, 1973. (FHL films 1070259– 1070263, 1070123.) | ||
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Laws requiring Jews to take surnames were passed at different times by different countries. The following dates are when these changes took place in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe: | Laws requiring Jews to take surnames were passed at different times by different countries. The following dates are when these changes took place in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe: | ||
*Baden, Germany (1790). | *Austria (1785). | ||
*French Empire, including Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Italy, Westphalia, the Confederation of the Rhine, Duchy of Warsaw (1808). | *Baden, Germany (1790). | ||
*Prussia (1812), now Germany and parts of Poland. As Prussia acquired additional territory, it was necessary to restate this requirement. The family name requirement was extended to Posen in 1833 and to all other parts of the Prussian state in 1845. | *French Empire, including Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Italy, Westphalia, the Confederation of the Rhine, Duchy of Warsaw (1808). | ||
*Bavaria, Germany (1813). | *Prussia (1812), now Germany and parts of Poland. As Prussia acquired additional territory, it was necessary to restate this requirement. The family name requirement was extended to Posen in 1833 and to all other parts of the Prussian state in 1845. | ||
*Mecklenburg, Germany (1813). | *Bavaria, Germany (1813). | ||
*Kingdom of Poland under Russian | *Mecklenburg, Germany (1813). | ||
*Württemberg, Germany (1828). | *Kingdom of Poland under Russian administration (1821). A decree requiring family names was issued in 1821, but it was not enforced. Polish law again required surnames in 1833, but it was only in accordance with the Imperial Russian statutes of 1835 and 1844 that all Polish Jews adopted permanent family names. | ||
*Saxony, Germany (1834). | *Württemberg, Germany (1828). | ||
*Russia (1844). Statutes of 1804 and 1835 decreed that Jews were not permitted to alter their family names, but these statutes did not require them to adopt fixed names. | *Saxony, Germany (1834). | ||
*Oldenburg, Germany (1852). | *Russia (1844). Statutes of 1804 and 1835 decreed that Jews were not permitted to alter their family names, but these statutes did not require them to adopt fixed names. | ||
*Oldenburg, Germany (1852). | |||
*Switzerland (1863). | *Switzerland (1863). | ||
By the 1820s most of the small states in western Germany had extended civil rights to Jews, usually requiring them to adopt surnames at the same time. Often the Jews resisted the imposition of last names, and the edicts had to be enforced over and over again. In many areas, patronyms continued to be used in addition to surnames. | By the 1820s most of the small states in western Germany had extended civil rights to Jews, usually requiring them to adopt surnames at the same time. Often the Jews resisted the imposition of last names, and the edicts had to be enforced over and over again. In many areas, patronyms continued to be used in addition to surnames. | ||
Ashkenazic Jews | ==== Sources of Ashkenazic Surnames ==== | ||
Before surnames were required, most Ashkenazic Jews were known by a patronym, so it is not surprising that they simply gave their father's given name when asked or forced to choose a fixed surname. This resulted in such surnames as Mendel, Ruben, Solomon, Meir, Moritz, and Gutmann. Many names have the German ending -sohn or the Slavic -wicz and -vitch, which mean "son of." These yielded names like Mendelssohn [son of Mendel], Abramsohn or Abrams [son of Abram], Berkovitz, or Szmulowicz. Ashkenazic Jews also continued to choose surnames from localities, occupations, and characteristics or physical traits. | |||
In many cases, restrictions were placed on the choice of names. Some governments forbade the adoption of Christian-sounding names or names of famous families. French laws forbade Jews taking names based on localities or to adopt Old Testament names. Hebrew names were generally not allowed. Since Jews considered Hebrew names sacred, a Yiddish, German, or Polish version that often had a symbolic association was generally used. Many used diminutive forms of these names according to dialect. For example, the name Jacob has the variations: Jankel, Yekel, Yakof, Yakobl, Kopel, Kopelman, and Kofman. These variant given names provided a rich source for surnames derived from Hebrew names without actually being Hebrw. | |||
Jews also used given names as part of a surname. From Aaron, for example, comes the surnames Arnstein, Arndt, Ahrens, Ehrens, Ehrenstamm, Ehrlich, and Ohrenstein. A man with a wife named Perla could have taken the surname Perlmann. | Many Hebrew given names have a symbolic connection with animals. For example, the German word for deer is Hirsch or, in some dialects, Herz or Hart. Hence we find surnames such as Hirsch, Hirschsohn, Herz, Hirschberg, Hartwig, and Herschel. The Slavic version of deer [hind] is Jellinek and in French is Cerf. Jews also used given names as part of a surname. From Aaron, for example, comes the surnames Arnstein, Arndt, Ahrens, Ehrens, Ehrenstamm, Ehrlich, and Ohrenstein. A man with a wife named Perla could have taken the surname Perlmann. | ||
But the most common names were ones that were cleverly disguised. Often the German name chosen had a different meaning to the Jew than it did to the German official who recorded it. For example, the acronym of the Hebrew words kohen ha-tzedek [righteous priest] produced Katz (German for cat), a name acceptable to German officials. This same abbreviation of form is found in Bach [German for brook] from ben Chaim [son of Chaim]. | But the most common names were ones that were cleverly disguised. Often the German name chosen had a different meaning to the Jew than it did to the German official who recorded it. For example, the acronym of the Hebrew words kohen ha-tzedek [righteous priest] produced Katz (German for cat), a name acceptable to German officials. This same abbreviation of form is found in Bach [German for brook] from ben Chaim [son of Chaim]. | ||
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*Himmel and Gimmel | *Himmel and Gimmel | ||
*Kohen and Kogan | *Kohen and Kogan | ||
Various government commissions often took bribes from the Jews in return for granting them pleasant-sounding surnames. Beautiful names derived from flowers and gems, such as Blumenthal [flower valley], Finkelstein [sparkling stone, diamond, pyrite], and other such names would come at a high price. Less fancy names, such as Weintraub [winegrape], Steinberg [stone mountain], Adler [eagle], or Eisen [iron], could be obtained at a lower cost. Those who could not or would not pay would sometimes receive ridiculous names, such as Ochsenschwanz [oxtail], Langnass [long nose], Zweifel [doubt], Schmalz [grease], Fresser [glutton], and other similar names. | |||
The process of surname development continued with the emigration of Jews from Europe. In the United States many changes in surnames can be attributed to an ignorance of European languages on the part of American officials and registrars. The immigrants’ ignorance of English also contributed to the creation of numerous new surnames and variations. Changes may have been minor, such as a slight adjustment in spelling to make the name easier to pronounce, such as Wallace from Wallisch or Harris from Hirsch. Or the name may have been shortened to make it sound less Jewish or foreign, such as Rosenzweig changed to Rose or Ross. A surname may have been translated into English, such as Schneider to Taylor, or it may have been discarded and replaced with a new name altogether. | The process of surname development continued with the emigration of Jews from Europe. In the United States many changes in surnames can be attributed to an ignorance of European languages on the part of American officials and registrars. The immigrants’ ignorance of English also contributed to the creation of numerous new surnames and variations. Changes may have been minor, such as a slight adjustment in spelling to make the name easier to pronounce, such as Wallace from Wallisch or Harris from Hirsch. Or the name may have been shortened to make it sound less Jewish or foreign, such as Rosenzweig changed to Rose or Ross. A surname may have been translated into English, such as Schneider to Taylor, or it may have been discarded and replaced with a new name altogether. | ||