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Poland Languages: Difference between revisions

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Most materials used in Polish research are written in Polish. You do not need to speak or read Polish to do research in Polish records, but you should know some key words and phrases to understand the records. Because the Roman Catholic Church was the predominant religion in Poland, many records  are in Latin. Other languages in Polish records include Polish, German, and Russian.
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|Name=Poland
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|Topic Type=Background
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|Rating=Standardized
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| link1=[[Poland Genealogy|Poland]]
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Polish grammar may affect the way names appear in genealogical records. For example, names of your ancestors will vary from record to record in Polish.
==Description==
The languages spoken in Poland are <ref>Wikipedia contributors, "Poland," in ''Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia'', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland#:~:text=Polish%20is%20the%20official%20and%20predominant, accessed 24 May 2023.</ref> <ref>Wikipedia contributors, "Languages of Poland," in ''Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia'', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Poland, accessed 24 May 2023.</ref> <ref>Wikipedia contributors, "Polish language," in ''Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia'', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language, accessed 24 May 2023.</ref>
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language '''Polish'''] - the official and predominant spoken language. 97% of the population declare Polish as their mother language. 37 million (2011).
** one of the official languages of the European Union, also a second language in parts of neighboring Lithuania.
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silesian_language '''Silesian'''] - spoken by 529,377 (2011).
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashubian_language '''Kashubian'''] - a recognized regional language spoken by 100,000 people in the northern regions of Kashubia and Pomerania on a daily basis. 108,140 (2011).
* '''English''' - about 32% of Polish citizens are knowledgeable with English. Spoken by 103,541 (2011).


For help in understanding name variations, see the “[[Poland Names, Personal|Names, Personal]]” section in this outline.
The Minority Languages spoken in Poland are <ref>Wikipedia contributors, "Languages_of_Poland," in ''Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia'', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Poland#National_minority's_languages, accessed 24 May 2023.</ref> <ref>Wikipedia contributors, "Languages_of_Poland," in ''Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia'', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Poland#Household_languages, accessed 24 May 2023.</ref>
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_language '''Armenian''']
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_language '''Belarusian'''] - spoken by 26,448 (2011).
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language '''Czech''']
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language '''German'''] - spoken by 96,461 (2011).
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish '''Yiddish''']
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language '''Hebrew''']
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language '''Lithuanian'''] - spoken by 5,303 (2011).
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language '''Russian'''] - spoken by 19,805 (2011).
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_language '''Slovak''']
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_language '''Ukrainian'''] - spoken by 24,539 (2011).
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaim_language '''Karaim''']
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusyn_language '''Rusyn'''] - also referred to as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemkos#Language/dialect '''Lemko''']. Spoken by 6,279 (2011).
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polska_Roma '''Polska Roma''']
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergitka_Roma '''Bergitka Roma''']
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatar_language '''Tatar'''] -  also known as '''Tartar'''.


=== Language Aids ===
==Word List(s)==
* Allen, Will and Piotr Czajkowski. ''Polish : phrasebook & dictionary.'' n.p.: Lonely Planet, 2019. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/1083165884 WorldCat].
* [https://omniglot.com/language/phrases/polish.php#:~:text=Useful%20Polish%20phrases Useful Polish phrases] - Omniglot
* [https://www.polishpod101.com/blog/2022/01/28/polish-beginner-phrases/ Most Useful Polish Phrases] - PolishPod101
* [https://omniglot.com/language/phrases/kashubian.htm#:~:text=Useful%20phrases%20in%20Kashubian Useful phrases in Kashubian] - Omniglot


The Family History Library has genealogical word lists for Polish (34098), German (34067), and Latin (34077). The following books and English-Polish dictionaries can also aid you in your research. You can find these and similar material at many research libraries:
Polish is a Slavic language related to Russian and Czech. It is used in genealogical sources throughout Poland. Before 1918, Polish-speaking territories were divided between Russia, Germany, and Austria. Records written before 1918 may be in German, Russian, Latin, or Polish.  


Kierst, W. ''English-Polish/Polish-English Dictionary.'' New York, New York: Saphograph Co., 1956. (FHL book 491.85321 K847e.)
* In Russian Poland, Polish was the official language for vital records from 1808 to 1868. From 1868 to 1917, Russian was the official language.  
* In German Poland, most records were kept in German or [[Latin Genealogical Word List|Latin]], though some were kept in Polish.  
* In Austrian Poland, most records were kept in [[Latin Genealogical Word List|Latin]]. Some records were kept in German and some in Polish.


Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian. ''Practical Polish-English, English-Polish Dictionary.'' New York, New York: Hippocrene Books, 1985. (FHL book 491.85321P751p.)
Most materials used in Polish research are written in Polish. You do not need to speak or read Polish to do research in Polish records, but you should know some key words and phrases to understand the records. Because the Roman Catholic Church was the predominant religion in Poland, many records&nbsp; are in Latin. Other languages in Polish records include German, Russian, Hebrew, Ukrainian, and Old Church Slavonic.<br>
For word lists and help researching in Polish records, see:
* [[Polish Genealogical Word List|Polish Genealogical Word List]]
* [[German Genealogical Word List|German Genealogical Word List]]
* [[Russian Genealogical Word List|Russian Genealogical Word List]]
* [[Latin Genealogical Word List|Latin Genealogical Word List]]


Another valuable research tool for reading records of the former Russian territories of Poland is:
==Alphabet and Pronunciation==
'''Alphabet'''
* [https://omniglot.com/writing/polish.htm#:~:text=Polish%20alphabet Polish alphabet] - Omniglot
** [https://omniglot.com/conscripts/polishcyrillic2.htm#:~:text=Polish%20Cyrillic Polish Cyrillic] - Omniglot
* [https://omniglot.com/writing/silesian.php#:~:text=Silesian%20alphabet Silesian alphabet] - Omniglot
* [https://omniglot.com/writing/kashubian.htm#:~:text=Kashubian%20alphabet Kashubian alphabet] - Omniglot
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashubian_alphabet Kashubian alphabet] - Wikipedia


Frazin, Judith R. A ''Translation Guide to&nbsp;the 19-century Polish-language Civil-registration Documents: (Birth, Marriage and Death Records). 2nd ed.'' Northbrook, Illinois: The Jewish Genealogical Society of Illinois, 1989. (FHL book 943.8 V27.)
'''Pronunciation'''
* [https://omniglot.com/writing/polish.htm#:~:text=Polish%20alphabet%20and%20pronunciation Polish pronunciation] - Omniglot
** [https://forvo.com/languages/pl/ Polish pronunciation dictionary] - Forvo
* [https://omniglot.com/writing/silesian.php#:~:text=Silesian%20alphabet%20and%20pronunciation Silesian pronunciation]-Omniglot
** [https://forvo.com/languages/szl/ Silesian pronunciation dictionary] - Forvo
* [https://omniglot.com/writing/kashubian.htm#:~:text=Kashubian%20alphabet%20(kasz%C3%ABbscz%C3%A9%20abecad%C5%82o)%20and%20pronunciation Kashubian pronunciation] - Omniglot
** [https://forvo.com/languages/csb/ Kashubian pronunciation dictionary] - Forvo
** [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashubian_alphabet#Pronunciation Kashubian Pronunciation] - Wikipedia


To read the Russian language records of this same area after 1868 use:
'''''Pronunciation Guide'''''<br>
:c = ts
:ch,h = kh
:ć,cz,ci = ch
:ś,sz,si = sh
:ż,zi,rz = zh
:ą = om, on
:ę = em, en
:j = y
:dz = j
:ł = w
:w = v


Shea, Jonathan D. ''Russian Language Documents from Russian Poland: a Translation Manual for Genealogists. 2nd ed.'' Buffalo Grove, Illinois: Genun, 1989. (FHL book 943.8 D27.)
==Language Aids and Dictionaries==
'''Dictionaries'''
* Phillips, Janet. ''Oxford essential Polish dictionary : Polish-English, English-Polish.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/647230988 WorldCat].
* Gavira, Angeles and Angela Wilkes. ''Polish English visual bilingual dictionary.'' New York: DK Publishing, 2018. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/1021246265 WorldCat].
* Grzebieniowski, Tadeusz. ''Langenscheidt's pocket Polish dictionary : English-Polish, Polish-English.'' New York: Langenscheidt, 1985. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/13186430 WorldCat].
* Roczniok, Andrzej. ''A Polish-Silesian dictionary.'' Zabrze: Narodowa Oficyna Śląska, 2012. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/214282915 WorldCat].
* Frymark, Stanisław. ''English-Polish- Kashub dictionary.'' Wilno, Ontario: Wilno Heritage Society, 2008. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/865875369 WorldCat].
* Jeliński, Marian and David Shulist. ''Kashubian-English-Polish dictionary.'' Żukowo: Fundacja Skansenu Pszczelarskiego, 2011. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/870335567 WorldCat].
* Kierst, Wadysaw. ''Concise dictionary, English Polish and Polish-English.'' Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna, 1957. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/32044384 WorldCat].
* Kierst, W. ''English-Polish and Polish-English dictionary.'' New York, N.Y.: Saphrograph, 1956. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/1663913 WorldCat].
* Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian. ''Practical Polish-English, English-Polish dictionary.'' New York: Hippcrene Books, 1985. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/866012067 WorldCat].
* Stanisławski, Jan. ''McKay's English-Polish/Polish-English dictionary.'' New York: Random House, 1988. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/17353421 WorldCat].


=== Word List ===
'''Online Dictionaries'''
* [https://glosbe.com/pl/en Dictionary Polish - English] - Glosbe
* [https://glosbe.com/en/szl Dictionary English - Silesian] - Glosbe
** [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Silesian/Dictionary Silesian Dictionary] - WikiBooks
* [https://glosbe.com/en/csb Dictionary English - Kashubian] - Glosbe


This list contains Polish words with their English translations. The words included here are those that you are likely to find in genealogical sources. If the word you are looking for is not on this list, please consult a Polish-English dictionary.&nbsp;<br>
'''Language Aids'''
* Fokker, A. A. and Emilia Smolikowska. ''Anatomy of a word-class : A chapter of Polish grammar.'' Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2018. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/1076466607 WorldCat].
* Bartonlini-Salimbeni, Beth. ''Italian grammar for dummies.'' Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2013. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/853548813 WorldCat].
* Makurat H. ''The Grammar of the Kashubian Language.'' n.p.: n.p., 2018. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/7991879682 WorldCat].


Polish is a Slavic language related to Russian and Czecslovakian. It is used in genealogical sources throughout Poland. Before 1918, Polish-speaking territories were divided between Russia, Germany, and Austria. Records written before 1918 may be in German, Russian, Latin, or Polish.
==Additional Resources==
* ''Polish for beginners : a comprehensive guide for learning the Polish language fast.'' n.p.: n.p., 2020. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/1251927460 WorldCat].
* Miłkowski, Marcin, Georg Rehm, and Hans Uszkoreit. ''The Polish language in the digital age.'' Berlin: Springer, 2012. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/808123448 WorldCat].
* Shea, Jonathan D. ''Russian language documents from Russian Poland : a translation manual for genealogists.'' Unlimited, Buffalo Grove, Ill.: Genun Publishers, 1989. '''''Available at:''''' [https://worldcat.org/title/21158243 WorldCat].
* [[Poland Encyclopedias and Dictionaries|Poland Encyclopedias and Dictionaries]]


* In Russian Poland, Polish was the official language for vital records from 1808 to 1868. From 1868 to 1917, Russian was the official language.
'''''Lessons on Handwriting'''''
* In German Poland, most records were kept in German or Latin, though some were kept in Polish.
'''Handwriting Lessons on FamilySearch Learning Center:'''<br>
* In Austrian Poland, most records were kept in Latin. Some records were kept in German and some in Polish.
*'''[https://www.familysearch.org/help/helpcenter/lessons/german-paleography-seminar-introduction German Paleography Seminar - 10 classes]'''
*[https://www.familysearch.org/help/helpcenter/lessons/german-paleography-seminar-introduction German Paleography Seminar] - Lessons on German Handwriting
*Old German Script
**[https://www.familysearch.org/help/helpcenter/lessons/old-german-script-part-1 Part 1]
**[https://www.familysearch.org/help/helpcenter/lessons/old-german-script-part-2 Part 2]
**[https://www.familysearch.org/help/helpcenter/lessons/old-german-script-german-church-and-civil-records-part-3 Part 3 (German Church and Civil Records)]
*'''Reading Russian Handwriting'''
**[https://www.familysearch.org/help/helpcenter/lessons/reading-russian-documents-the-russian-alphabet Reading Russian Documents: The Russian Alphabet]
*'''Additional Russian Paleography Classes'''
**[http://www.russianforeveryone.com/RufeA/Lessons/Introduction/Alphabet/Alphabet.htm Russian for Everyone: The Russian Alphabet]
**[https://www.sggee.org/research/rus_translate/Cyrillic_Handouts.pdf SGGEE Cyrillic Handout.pdf] for months and numbers in Russian cursive.
*'''Latin in German Church Records'''
**[https://www.familysearch.org/help/helpcenter/lessons/latin-for-genealogists Latin for Genealogists]


Polish is also used in the records kept in some Polish communities in the United States.
Polish grammar may affect the way names appear in genealogical records. For example, names of your ancestors will vary from record to record in Polish.  


Polish records often contain Latin and German words. See the German Genealogical Word List (34067) and the Latin Genealogical Word List (34077).
For help in understanding name variations, see [[Poland Naming Customs|Naming Customs]].


=== LANGUAGE CHARACTERISTICS ===
== References  ==
{{reflist}}


Polish words for persons, places, and things (nouns) are classified as masculine, feminine, or neuter. Adjectives used to describe them must have the proper masculine, feminine, or neuter endings, for example:


stary maz-- old man


stara kobieta-- old woman
[[pt:Línguas e Linguagem da Polônia]][[fr:Pologne Langue et Langages]]


stare miasto-- old city
[[Category:Poland Language and Handwriting]] [[Category:Language and Handwriting]]
 
The endings of past tense verbs also change depending on the gender of the person or thing being described or performing the action. For example:
 
umarl-- he died
 
umarla-- she died
 
umarlo-- it [the child] died
 
=== Variant Forms of Words ===
 
In Polish, as in English, the forms of some words will vary according to how they are used in a sentence. Who-whose-whom or marry-marries- married are examples of words in English with variant forms. In Polish any word may change, depending on usage. This word list gives the standard form of each Polish word. As you read Polish records, you will need to be aware that most words vary with usage.
 
The endings of words in a document will often differ from what you find in this list. For example, the document may use the word starego (old), but you will find it in this word list as stary (old).
 
Certain endings, called genitive, give the meaning "of" to a word. The following endings are typical:
 
Nouns Endings Adjectives
 
-a (masculine) -ego
 
-y or -i (feminine) -ej
 
-ów (plural) -ich or -ych
 
Thus, ojciec zmarlego means "father of the deceased."
 
Plural forms of Polish words usually change the singular word as follows:
 
Words ending in -a change to -y
 
Words ending in -o change to -a
 
A -y or -i is added to form the plural
 
The plural form may change the basic word, for example:
 
{| class="plain FCK__ShowTableBorders"
|-
| Singular
| Plural
| zona =wife
| zony= wives
|-
| miasto =city
| miasta= cities
|-
| powiat =district
| powiaty =districts
|-
| brat= brother
| bracia =brothers
|}
 
=== ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ===
 
This word list includes words most commonly found in genealogical sources. For further help, use a Polish-English dictionary. Several Polish-English dictionaries are available at the Family History Library in the European collection. Their call numbers begin with 491.85321. See the "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries" section in this outline.<br>
 
The following dictionary is available on microfilm for use in Family History Centers:
 
Stanislawski, Jan. ''English-Polish and Polish-English Dictionary.''&nbsp; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: David McKay, 1946. (FHL film 1,045,473, item 1)
 
Additional dictionaries are listed in the Subject section of the Family History Library Catalog under:
 
POLISH LANGUAGE - DICTIONARIES
 
Other dictionaries and language helps, such as Polish grammar books, are listed in the Locality section under:
 
POLAND - LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES
 
=== KEY WORDS ===
 
To find and use specific types of Polish records, you will need to know some key words in Polish. This section gives key genealogical terms in English and the Polish words with the same or similar meanings.
 
For example, in the first column you will find the English word marriage. In the second column you will find Polish words with meanings such as marry, marriage, wedding, wedlock, unite, legitimate, joined, and other words used to indicate marriage.
 
{| class="plain FCK__ShowTableBorders"
|-
| English
| Polish
| birth
| urodzin, urodzony, urodzil, sie, zrodzony
|-
| burial
| pochowanie, pogrzeb
|-
| Catholic
| rzymsko-katolicki
|-
| child
| dziecie, dziecko
|-
| christening
| chrzest, chrzciny, ochrzczone
|-
| death(s)
| zgon(ów), zejsc, umarl, zmarl, smierci
|-
| father
| ojciec
|-
| husband
| maz, malzonek
|-
| index
| indeks, skorowidz, register, spis
|-
| Jewish
| zydowski, starozakonny, izraelici, mojzeszowy
|-
| marriage
| malzenstw(o), slub(ów), zaslubionych
|-
| marriage banns
| zapowiedzi
|-
| mother
| matka
|-
| name, given
| imie, imion
|-
| name, surname
| nazwisko
|-
| parents
| rodzice
|-
| parish
| parafia
|-
| Protestant
| ewangelicki, reformowany, protestancki, luteranski
|-
| wife
| zona, malzonka, zamezna, kobieta
|-
| year
| rok, lat
|}
 
[[Category:Poland]]

Latest revision as of 20:10, 20 March 2024


Poland Wiki Topics
Flag of Poland
Poland Beginning Research
Record Types
Poland Background
Poland Genealogical Word Lists
Cultural Groups
Local Research Resources

Description

The languages spoken in Poland are [1] [2] [3]

  • Polish - the official and predominant spoken language. 97% of the population declare Polish as their mother language. 37 million (2011).
    • one of the official languages of the European Union, also a second language in parts of neighboring Lithuania.
  • Silesian - spoken by 529,377 (2011).
  • Kashubian - a recognized regional language spoken by 100,000 people in the northern regions of Kashubia and Pomerania on a daily basis. 108,140 (2011).
  • English - about 32% of Polish citizens are knowledgeable with English. Spoken by 103,541 (2011).

The Minority Languages spoken in Poland are [4] [5]

Word List(s)

Polish is a Slavic language related to Russian and Czech. It is used in genealogical sources throughout Poland. Before 1918, Polish-speaking territories were divided between Russia, Germany, and Austria. Records written before 1918 may be in German, Russian, Latin, or Polish.

  • In Russian Poland, Polish was the official language for vital records from 1808 to 1868. From 1868 to 1917, Russian was the official language.
  • In German Poland, most records were kept in German or Latin, though some were kept in Polish.
  • In Austrian Poland, most records were kept in Latin. Some records were kept in German and some in Polish.

Most materials used in Polish research are written in Polish. You do not need to speak or read Polish to do research in Polish records, but you should know some key words and phrases to understand the records. Because the Roman Catholic Church was the predominant religion in Poland, many records  are in Latin. Other languages in Polish records include German, Russian, Hebrew, Ukrainian, and Old Church Slavonic.
For word lists and help researching in Polish records, see:

Alphabet and Pronunciation

Alphabet

Pronunciation

Pronunciation Guide

c = ts
ch,h = kh
ć,cz,ci = ch
ś,sz,si = sh
ż,zi,rz = zh
ą = om, on
ę = em, en
j = y
dz = j
ł = w
w = v

Language Aids and Dictionaries

Dictionaries

  • Phillips, Janet. Oxford essential Polish dictionary : Polish-English, English-Polish. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Gavira, Angeles and Angela Wilkes. Polish English visual bilingual dictionary. New York: DK Publishing, 2018. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Grzebieniowski, Tadeusz. Langenscheidt's pocket Polish dictionary : English-Polish, Polish-English. New York: Langenscheidt, 1985. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Roczniok, Andrzej. A Polish-Silesian dictionary. Zabrze: Narodowa Oficyna Śląska, 2012. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Frymark, Stanisław. English-Polish- Kashub dictionary. Wilno, Ontario: Wilno Heritage Society, 2008. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Jeliński, Marian and David Shulist. Kashubian-English-Polish dictionary. Żukowo: Fundacja Skansenu Pszczelarskiego, 2011. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Kierst, Wadysaw. Concise dictionary, English Polish and Polish-English. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna, 1957. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Kierst, W. English-Polish and Polish-English dictionary. New York, N.Y.: Saphrograph, 1956. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian. Practical Polish-English, English-Polish dictionary. New York: Hippcrene Books, 1985. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Stanisławski, Jan. McKay's English-Polish/Polish-English dictionary. New York: Random House, 1988. Available at: WorldCat.

Online Dictionaries

Language Aids

  • Fokker, A. A. and Emilia Smolikowska. Anatomy of a word-class : A chapter of Polish grammar. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2018. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Bartonlini-Salimbeni, Beth. Italian grammar for dummies. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2013. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Makurat H. The Grammar of the Kashubian Language. n.p.: n.p., 2018. Available at: WorldCat.

Additional Resources

  • Polish for beginners : a comprehensive guide for learning the Polish language fast. n.p.: n.p., 2020. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Miłkowski, Marcin, Georg Rehm, and Hans Uszkoreit. The Polish language in the digital age. Berlin: Springer, 2012. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Shea, Jonathan D. Russian language documents from Russian Poland : a translation manual for genealogists. Unlimited, Buffalo Grove, Ill.: Genun Publishers, 1989. Available at: WorldCat.
  • Poland Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

Lessons on Handwriting Handwriting Lessons on FamilySearch Learning Center:

Polish grammar may affect the way names appear in genealogical records. For example, names of your ancestors will vary from record to record in Polish.

For help in understanding name variations, see Naming Customs.

References

  1. ↑ Wikipedia contributors, "Poland," in Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland#:~:text=Polish%20is%20the%20official%20and%20predominant, accessed 24 May 2023.
  2. ↑ Wikipedia contributors, "Languages of Poland," in Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Poland, accessed 24 May 2023.
  3. ↑ Wikipedia contributors, "Polish language," in Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language, accessed 24 May 2023.
  4. ↑ Wikipedia contributors, "Languages_of_Poland," in Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Poland#National_minority's_languages, accessed 24 May 2023.
  5. ↑ Wikipedia contributors, "Languages_of_Poland," in Wikipedia: the Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Poland#Household_languages, accessed 24 May 2023.
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